Thursday, January 30, 2020
Sex and gender Essay Example for Free
Sex and gender Essay In psychology many different perspectives seek to explain the differences between males and females. In societies they play distinctive roles and are treated and viewed differently. They behave differently too. To compare and contrast the accounts of sex and gender we need to define the terms sex and gender. To examine further we need to examine the key aspects of the biological, evolutionary, social constructionist and psychoanalytical perspectives focusing on similarities and differences regarding their accounts of sex and gender. Finally need to consider the ways in which these perspectives compliment, conflict or simply co-exist with one another. Often the term sex and gender are used interchangeably. Often this usage has lead to confusion therefore we have to begin by attempting to draw a distinction between the terms for discussing psychological perspectives in this paper. Traditionally, the word gender has been used to refer to the cultural aspect of what it is to be man or woman. Womanly or manly and masculine or feminine are viewed as not being connected with a persons biological sex, but more in terms of psychological characteristics shaped by individuals experience (EPoCH CD-ROM). The term sex is used solely when referring to biological and physical traits such as primary and secondary sex characteristics or specifically to sexual intercourse. (Hollway,Cooper,Johnston,Stevens ,The psychology of sex and gender p117). It is important to bear in mind that different perspectives ask different questions and use different methods to examine the basic assumptions made by each perspective with respect to the concepts of sex and gender. In terms of the biological factors that are thought to shape sex and gender include external genitalia, sex chromosomes and genes, hormones and lateralization of brain function. Although it is important to emphasize that anatomy is not necessarily destiny but the most commonly used way to determine sex is then observation of the external (visible) genitals (Hollway, Cooper, Johnston and Stevens, 2003). To determine the individuals sex is through sex chromosomes and every human being has a pair of sex chromosomes; in females this pair normally comprises of two X chromosomes and in males an X and a Y chromosome. Another indicator of maleness or femaleness for biological theorists are the levels of specific hormones such as testosterone (male) and oestrogen and progesterone (female) which produce primary and secondary sexual characteristics and are different in males and females. But we must not fail to say that genetic abnormalities do occur for example Klinefelters syndrome is when males inherit an extra X chromosome resulting in an XXY pattern resulting in many feminine physical characteristics. While these genetic abnormalities are unusual, they make clear that biological processes alone do not make us male or female (Hollway et al, 2003).Then again biological sex is not central to explaining what it is to be man or a woman and can be unreliable in some cases, it does offer simple explanations which can be tested empirically. Likewise the evolutionary perspective, while adopting a scientific approach similar to biological theorists, cannot be subjected to empirical testing and therefore can operate only at the level of speculation. This is due to its reliance in part on the principles of reverse engineering in constructing theoretical models regarding the origins of human behaviour (Hollway et al, 2003). Moreover evolutionary psychologists argue that genetic make-up and behavioural predispositions between males and females evolved according to the process of sexual selection. (Phoenix, 2002). They believe that reproduction is the only way for an inherited characteristic to be passed on from one generation to the next and thus their primary focus on explaining gender differences is in terms of reproductive behaviour and sexual style. In accordance to this it was found that evolutionary psychologists females generally devote more time and energy to the care of their offspring. As a result of this greater parental investment (Hollway et al, 2003) different patterns of behaviour between males and females developed. Therefore successful females in an attempt to maximise their reproductive success they are more concerned with selecting a mate that has good genes and is willing to invest in offspring. On the other hand, males devote more time and energy to finding and attracting mates and are more concerned with mating as many times as possible. Clark and Hatfield (1989, cited by Hollway et al, 2003) carried out a study in which they found that 75% of male students as oppose to no female students consented to having sex with the opposite sex. They interpreted these results as supporting the evolutionary theory that women and men evolved different strategies and consequently different behaviour, for reproductive success. So we can say that the biological and evolutionary approaches are similar in that they view sex as the foundation of gender; however, social constructivists do not see gender as determined by sex. They strongly believe that a persons gendered behaviour is always constructed through the lens of their interpretation and understanding within their own historical and social contexts and therefore cannot be explained by their biological reproductive sex status alone (Hollway et al, 2003). Social constructivists believe that both sex and gender arise in social interaction and have no existence independent of social interaction. According to this perspective we actively construct the world we live in and this is an on-going process that changes from situation to situation (Phoenix, 2002). Our knowledge of gender is so deeply ingrained that it is difficult to see it as a socially constructed category nevertheless; gender is one of the most powerful constructed categories by which individuals define themselves (Hollway et al, 2003). Bem (1994, cited by Hollway et al, 2003, Pg. 141) believes that masculinity and femininity are socially and culturally constructed dimensions that inform all the forms of our thinking, emotional experience and behaviour. In addition to historical and cultural influences on gender behaviours the media and the school curriculum portray male and female roles in gender stereotypic ways. Social construction theorists would argue that gender inequality is produced and sustained in schools (Hollway et al, 2003). Theorists from this perspective focus on the interpretation of meaning using symbolic data and subjective insider accounts, which are changeable and affected by discourses. This approach differs from the natural science principles embraced by the biological and evolutionary perspectives which are based on an objective, outsider viewpoint and are more fixed (Miell and Pike, 2003). The methodology employed in the next perspective, that of psychoanalysis, uses subjective insider accounts similar to the social constructivists. However, in contrast to the three perspectives discussed thus far, the psychoanalytic approach differs in that it stresses unconscious mental processes and turns to our inner psychological worlds. Although psychoanalysts do take into account social factors like family structure and meaning, it differs from the social construction approach in that it suggest girls and boys have predispositions for behaviour (similar to evolutionary perspective). Moreover, Freuds theory about boys and girls was based on their own perceptions about their bodies and cannot be reduced to biological or societal explanation (Hollway et al, 2003). The psychoanalytic theory proposes that children acquire either feminine or masculine traits or behaviours by identifying with a same sex parent. They believe that sex and gender relations play a vital role in self-development and that children unconsciously internalise differences between the sexes and make them their own, thus establishing their own gendered identity (Hollway et al, 2003). Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a key figure in the development of psychoanalysis. The genital stage of Freuds theory of psychosexual development is traditionally seen as the beginning of gender and sexual identity. For Freud the acquisition of sexuality and a gendered identity is a totally psychological process in which children are born psychosexually neutral and then learn to identify with their same sex parent through having resolved their Oedipus (boys) or Electra (girls) complex. The essence of this theory is that, at around five years old, a boys love for his mother acquires sexual connotations. He becomes a rival with this father for her love. Because his father is such a powerful figure he feels threatened and thus takes on the features of his father. Freud named this the Oedipus complex (Phoenix, 2002) The theory he produced for girls, the Electra complex, whereby she realises that she does not possess a penis (penis envy) and feels devalued, has brought about much controversy and aroused the ire of feminist writers. Additionally, Freud has been criticized for making generalisations about human nature when his evidence was limited to gender relations of a particular time (Hollway et al, 2003). Times have changed and now women are taking on more male roles and have control over their own fertility. As a result Freuds view of how the possession of a penis gives privileges and rites in the family and his failure to consider the significance of womens genitals is strongly criticized. Moreover, research has found that males are envious of womens ability to give birth (Horney, 1926, cited by Hollway et at, 2003). Due to changing times many psychologists have come to believe that most people possess a combination of characteristics that until recently have been traditionally viewed as either masculine or feminine. According to Bem (1974, cited by Hollway et al, 2003) most people are androgynous, that is, they possess both masculine and feminine psychological characteristics. Thus far we have examined four different perspectives in relation to sex and gender and clearly no one perspective can explain the psychology of sex and gender. From a methodological standpoint it is difficult to integrate the differing perspectives. Both biological and evolutionary psychologies embrace the scientific, quantitative approach whereas the social constructivists and psychoanalysts use a qualitative approach focusing on interpretation of meaning. As these methods are so fundamentally different it is most likely that, rather than conflicting, they simply co-exist with one another. The way these perspectives interact can be seen as complimentary for example, as we have discussed, it is accepted that generally individuals are sexed by biology and gendered by social influences. The psychoanalytic theory can be seem as conflicting with the social construction theory in the focus on unconscious (psychoanalytic) versus conscious experience (social constructivists). As can be seen, humans are complex creatures rarely explainable in terms of a single type of influence. The accounts of sex and gender discussed are from four diverse perspectives and it is only by exploring how these interact with one another that we can gain a genuine understanding of the psychology of sex and gender.
Wednesday, January 22, 2020
Lord of the flies :: essays research papers
In the exciting novel, Lord of the Flies, there are many symbols. Some more important and more observed than others. One of these more important and more thoroughly observed symbols is Piggy’s specs. Piggy’s specs are crucial to the boys’ survival on the island because they made the fire that they so badly needed for survival. His specs help in there survival because without the specs to make the fire they wouldn’t have been able to keep warm, cook food, or signal the ship that rescued them. The specs were so important that they argued and fought over who got them. One time Jack’s gang stole them and broke them because they wanted them and needed them so badly. So many people desired them because they are needed to survive on the Island. Lastly, the specs represent many things in the book such as power, leadership, and differences between Jack and Ralph.      Piggy’s specs are used for lighting the fire in the beginning of this novel. This is a huge accomplishment because without the fire the kids would have died a long, long time ago. The fire enabled them to eat, keep warm, and signal planes of boats for rescue. His specs are essential to their survival.      The specs help in their survival because the fire is the main priority on the Island. It cooked the food that the hunters kill. Without cooking the food they can’t eat anything except berries and plants. These things run out and are not as nutritional. The kids need meat to survive. The fire kept the kids warm during the nighttime. At night it gets cold out and the kids could get sick if they are exposed to extremely hot or cold temperatures. This would cause the kids to get sick and maybe even die. Also, the fire was used as a signal. The fire signaled the boat that rescued them from the Island. The boat wouldn’t have come to save them if it didn’t see the smoke made by the fire. The fire is an absolute necessity on the Island. The kids would have had no chance of living without the fire.      One time, the specs got broken because Ralph and Jack separated and Jacks gang wanted the spec. Therefore, Jack’s gang tried stealing them in the night from Piggy. They didn’t steal them but the specs were broken. Another time, they ambushed Piggy and stole them from him.
Tuesday, January 14, 2020
Behaviorism cognitivism and constructivism Essay
Behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism Introduction            All through history, education and philosophy have come out as ever-evolving pieces of disciplines that are not only interlinked, but also drivers of each other. This is because; education involves the process of passing down information from one informant to another person who will receive it. The way the knowledge or piece of information by the recipient or learner and the informant or teacher, forms the underlying features of the process of education and its overall effect on the society. In addition, there is evidence of numerous factions of educational disciplines that exist in the field and each requires a particular way or method of doing things. Natural sciences, biological sciences, social sciences, humanities and many other areas of educational learning that split from the mainstream disciplines as well as those that are discovered on a day to day basis in the continued development of ways to not only make education much easier, but also make the underlying mental and behavioral aspects.            On the other hand, without philosophy, it is arguably deducible that education and learning would not be in existences today. Practically, education and learning is one of the most important aspects of human life whose absence is an imaginable. Apparently, it is the historical and the proceeding developments and transformations of the philosophical concepts that shape the kind of processes, developments as well as outcomes involved in education. The link between education, theories and philosophies            It is in this light that the study of the concepts of structuralism, constructivism, functionalism and the modern behaviorism and cognitivism leads to the understanding that these philosophical as well as empirical studies on educational and learning concepts brings about the result that there has been a progressive development and logical sequence of events in the philosophies which in turn end up bringing about a difference in the understanding of the elements of learning in educations.            As such, this paper seeks to look deep into the basic definitions, concepts and effects of the cognitivism, behaviorism and constructivism. The process of this in-depth analysis is based on the basic players involved and the experiments that have been conducted as well as the other ones, which have the potential to prove the association of the elements. From the historical arenas of education processes to the modern conduction of education of various disciplines including aviation, it is possible for a well-crafted idea, full of valid data and logical relations and linking can be presented to bring about the achievement of this objective. In the end, it will be a requirement to join the dots that link these three concepts in such a way that the timeline and concept of use be made evident. With a broad look at each of the issues, the paper seeks to delve into the development and thus, delve into the proof that all these philosophies come ab out as a way of filling a loophole found in another or as a complimentary form of mitigation (Buckley, 1989). Behaviorism            Prior to delving into the aspect of behaviorism, it is important to get in touch with the events and concepts that were developed way before this concept and how they have had an influence on the speed as well as the stepping stones for the procession to the eventual use of behaviorism as a way of discerning what happens and goes on in the learning and development process in education. The concepts of structuralism and functionalism have come out as being the key movers and shakers in this process (Kitchener & O’Donohue, 1999). For instance, the schools of thought bring out issues that are different but complimentary to each other such that one phenomenon in one is explained or illustrated by a concept in another. Structuralism is based on the basic nature of all that is in existence and how the basic and smallest particles of material such as atoms act in order to create a particular effect. In psychology therefore, this concept is used as a way of finding and understanding the internal processes of the mind as a way of knowing the human mental processes from the structural point of view. Functionalism, on the other hand, is a concept that seeks to come out with the principles of understanding the functional aspect of consciousness away from the structural perspective (Watson, 2008).            It is from the foundations of the philosophers of the past who came up with experiments and concepts of structuralism and functionalism that the thinking process of creating behaviorism concepts. Having been first brought forth by the John Watson in the early 1900s, a plethora of written materials supported the idea that the study of behavior with a concentration on the extents to which the processes of actions and reaction come about are can be used to understand such concepts as those that influence human behavior (Kitchener & O’Donohue, 1999). Basically, this concept has its key focus on the two-way understanding of the multifaceted relation between a stimulus and a response to it. It is the endeavor of a good psychologist to understand how a stimulus, which is a specific action, event, or sensation that an organism is subjected to, the response on the individual. On the other hand, for the reaction or response of the subject, it should be possible to understand type, or better still, the specific stimulus that is responsible for the response (Buckley, 1989).            As a consequence of this, other affiliates and sub-branches of the conditioning and classical conditioning have come up as a result of myriads of empirical experiments. Thus, as Watson puts it, in a particular environments, well placed conditioned training as well as the little regard to phylogeny or potential, any individual organism is capable of becoming what they are expected, trained or conditioned to be (Watson, 2008). Cognitionism            Whereas the concepts and principles of behaviorism have been used for a long time to come up with an understanding of the underlying and deep-seated issues in learning processes, there was need to understand the process of learning with the point of view that emanates from the study of the thought process, information processing and manipulation as well as the effects on learning. As such, from the early times of scientific and philosophical propositions, it is noted that the search of the understanding of the learning process is spotted with a spectra of footprints of scientists and scholars (Jahnke & Nowaczyk, 1998). Though they use a mixture of various earlier concepts, Charles Darwin’s evolution theory states that from the onset of existence of life, organisms have gone through changes within and without their species in a bid to participate equivalently in the competitive world of the survival for the fittest as well as Deweyâ €™s spiritual approach tend to agree on one thing; that organisms and human beings undergo gradual development and depending on the environment, there are possible modifications that come about in order for the organism to better live in their environments. It is for this reason that all eyes then focused into the exploring the key influencer of consciousness and thought as well as the varying effects that come from it (Shettleworth, 2010). Through a number of experiments, it was found that the though process and what affects it, play an important role in determining the learning ability, process and outcomes involved. Apparently, in as much as structuralism and functionalism come close to helping understand the internal process of learning; they are just basic foundations and stepping stones towards the understanding of behavioral, cognitive as well as constructivism. This means that even though Watson puts it across that through behavioral condition in a suitable environment, one can become whatever they are conditioned to be by learning, there are a few variations that can only be explained via the understanding of cognitive processes. Basically, it is a known fact that performance in assessment procedures and tests come out differently for different people. This is because there are a difference in the cognitive aspect of learning that is manifested in the motivation, age and level of intelligence, personality and other traits that influence an individual’s ability to learn. It is also of importance in the understanding of the processes that bring about the differences between the reflective and the impulsive persons as well as turning the stones covering the facts about crystallized and liquid intelligence. One of the most outstanding aspects of cognitivism is the fact that it is related to treatment and not stimuli as in behavioral models. As such, visual effects in learning process, signs, classroom structure, motivation and teaching methods are among the factors to consider when the subject is under study for the cognitive aspect of learning (Jahnke & Nowaczyk, 1998). Structuralism            Notably observed as one of the most dominant forms of education theories that the modern arena of education is based, is presents itself as the latest used form of model by many. Constructivism is defined as the ability of the student or the learner to perceive a new piece of information, store it in the memory and add it to the already existing information in the memory such that the end result is a learning process that is composed of a knowledge based on various building blocks acquired over time. The student, having gone through experiences, read or learnt about the information prior to the current information learnt, is able to add up or relate the piece of information, makes a connection and derives a meaning or conclusion from it. As such, this method is seen as being one that links both the processes of learning involving practical and theory. Through this, it is more possible to the learner than ever before, for the learner to ful fill the main role of education; to make a meaning of life and the thing that surround the human race (Shettleworth, 2010). Application in the aviation industry            Logical reasoning and actions that come as a result are of great importance in every working or professional environment. It is important to note that, some more than others, workforce environments require great precision, stability of the mind as well as accuracy of thought in the bid to bring about excellent completion of tasks or assignment. The aviation industry is one of such fields of work, which need great and well-regarded ways of doing things that will come out as evidently efficient and effective. It is for this reason that all involved in this process from their time of training and learning need to be percolated in terms of ability and mental acuity (Reed, 2007). Once this is done, all should be subjected to the widely ranging learning processes that are based on the models mentioned above. Through studying of the learning process with regard to behavior, spatial skills, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, a bility to link pieces of information and fix a problem in the shortest time possible, it is possible to come out with fully baked personnel for the field of work. Even though these methods of evaluating learning processes act as complimentary aspects of the others, it is important to note that many situations vary with what they demand from the person in charge. For this reason, subjection of the learning subject to each of them before evaluation of the ability to use all in combination is a vital idea for the potential personnel for the aviation industry. Moreover, it is through these educationally proven processes that one’s abilities, limitations can be determined, and recommendations made as to the kind of departments in which one is able to fit in. Generally, these educational theories and philosophies have logically evolved over time in a bid to bring about advancements in the field of education and learning process (Reed, 2007). References Buckley, K. W. (1989). Mechanical man: John Broadus Watson and the beginnings of behaviorism. New York: Guilford Press. Jahnke, J. C., & Nowaczyk, R. H. (1998). Cognition. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice-Hall. O’Donohue, W. T., & Kitchener, R. F. (1999). Handbook of behaviorism. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press. Reed, S. K. (2007). Cognition: Theory and applications. Australia: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Shettleworth, S. J. (2010). Cognition, evolution, and behavior. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Watson, J. B. (2008). Behaviorism. Tucson, Ariz.?: West Press. Source document
Sunday, January 5, 2020
Islam The Islamic Civilizations - 1128 Words
There are a lot of very interesting comparative and contrasts you can deduct from ancient Hebrews V.s. the Islamic civilizations. In both cultures we see a submission to some form of God. Both cultures were at one point polytheistic. They both have very unique history to them. I find Islamic culture to be very different in many ways however from Hebrews. Islamic culture we see a book called the Quran, this book are all words from Mohammad copied by his disciples. He gave birth to a mono theistic religion. He brought all the Muslims to be a community rather than spread out. His message was not very different from that of Christianity or Judaism. He believed that the soul was eternal and that there was a Devine deity. The Devine deity that he believes is God is called Allah. He also believes that Allah is a personal god. Muhammad had a huge impact on the Arabian Peninsula. He had assumed the role of spiritual leadership and political authority. One of the things I see that is very different from Judaism is that there was some sort of rock called the Kaaba that Muslims deem holy. It is Muslim tradition that Kaaba was built by Abraham and Ishmael, and this was the spot where Abraham prepared to sacrifice Ishmael. It is a sort of duty that once in the life of a Muslim you must make it to Kaaba and do the ritual of circling it 7 times. I find this very interesting of what makes Kaaba holy. Scientist say that the black rock inside Kaaba is some sort of meteorite. Another keyShow MoreRelatedThe Islamic Civilization And Islam1658 Words  | 7 PagesOne cannot have an adequate and well-versed discussion about Islamic civilization without first defining two key terms: Civilization and Islam. 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